Today the importance of Industrial Engineering is known to all. Decades ago the importance of industrial engineering was limited to few. But today, we see vast changes in industrial engineering sector, and with more than years of combined research by experts it has been able to play a major role in industrialization.
A nation’s economy is dramatically improving with the introduction of industrial engineering. Not only large corporations have benefited from this, but the industrial engineers are using their skills and talents for economic problem saving in the country.
This development is possible through the systematic implementation of industrial engineering.
The main cause for the drastic development in Western and European countries is due to industrial engineering. Industrial Engineering believes in the concepts of low cost and high production. Industrial Engineering adopts and alters its techniques in accordance with the business structure of a particular sector.
Industrial Engineering is a broader concept, and we provide expertise tips to cautiously approach this technique to all the interested people out there.
Industrial Engineering is that branch of engineering knowledge and practices which,
Analyses, measures and improves the methods of performing the assigned tasks to individuals.
Designs and installs better systems of integrating the tasks assigned to a group.
Specifies, Predicts and evaluates the results obtained.
It does so by applying to materials, equipment, and works specialized knowledge and skill in the mathematical and physical sciences and the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design.
The contribution of industrial engineering lies in the management of decision making process. The problems existing in this area deal with the optimum utilization of men, materials, equipment and energy to achieve the purpose of organization.
The managers of the organization need factual information arranged to define alternatives and consequences to help them recognize and solve existing problems. Industrial engineering collects analysis and arranges this information in such a way as to fulfill the management need, as well as searches for better way to do the job. Industrial engineering operates in two major areas, the design of new systems and the maintenance and improvement of existing systems.
Present management expects industrial engineering to be capable of assisting in and performing the following services.
Assist management in never ending cost reduction.
Assist management in increasing the productivity of human and productive resources.
Develop management information flow systems.
Conduct organizational studies and design new organizational systems.
Develop data processing and computer control system.
Coordinate development of corporate maintenance policies and program.
Formulate and recommend corporate inventory management policies and procedures.
Initiate, develop and recommend corporate equipment replacement policies.
Assist management in developing long range planning strategies.
Develop production planning and scheduling procedures.
Establish engineered standards of performance for management control.
Determine and recommend the optimum usage of plant, equipment and office facilities.
Verify economic feasibility of capital expenditure requests.
Conduct manufacturing and office methods survey.
Provide assistance to all levels of management in solving problems requiring statistical and applied mathematical analysis.
Assist management in decision making through the use of computers or through the development of mathematical models simulating complex business problems.
Co-ordinate studies involving line and staff functions crossing divisional lines.
Assist management in formulating and developing corporate policies and procedures.
Develop and recommend production and quality control programmers.
PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is defined as the ratio between output and input in enterprises, an industry or an economy as a whole.
Resources may be land, materials, plant machines, tools and services of men.
Productivity of land may be said to have increased if the output of goods or services within that area of land is increased by whatever means.
Productivity of materials may be due to greater skill on the part of worker, to improved design also.
Productivity of machines- It is said to have increased if produced components per shift are more than existing production by means of more improved of machining.
Productivity of men due to effective utilization of manpower.
WORK STUDY
Work study is a general term for those techniques particularly method study and work measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts and which leads systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being renewed in order to effect improvement.
Work study is thus especially concerned with productivity since it is used to increase the amount of produced from a given quantity of resources without further capital investment except perhaps on a very small scale.
Method study is concerned with the reduction of the work content of a joint or an operation, while work measurement is mostly concerned with the investigation and reduction of any ineffective time associated with it and with the subsequent establishment of time standards for the operation when carried out in the improved fashion as determined by the method study.
Both of these do not take in to account the increase in productivity or reduction in cost, brought about by development of new basic process or installation of more modern or higher capacity plant of equipment. Work study is service to management and supervision.
How ‘Work Study’ is a valuable ‘tool’ of management?
It is a means of raising the productive efficiency (productivity) of a factory or a operating unit by the re organization of a work method which normally involves little or no capital expenditure on plant and equipment.
It is systematic. This ensures that no factor affecting the efficiency of an operation is overlooked whether in analyzing the original practices or in developing the new and that all the facts about that operation are available.
It is most accurate means – evolved of ‘Standards of Performance’, on which, the effective and control of production depends.
The saving resulting from properly applied work study, once started will continue as long as the operation continuous in the improved form.
It’s a ‘Tool’ which can be applied everywhere. It can be used with success wherever manual work is done or plant is operated, not only in manufacturing shop but in offices, stores, lab, and service industries such as whole sale and retailed distribution and restaurants.
It is a most penetrating tool of ‘Investigation’ available to management. This makes it an excellent weapon for starting an attack on the inefficiency of any organization, since in investigating one set of problems, the sickness of all the other functions affecting it, will gradually be laid bare.
Managers and foremen have generally failed to achieve the savings and improvements which can be affected by work study because they have been unable to apply themselves continuously to such timings even when, they have been trained. It is not enough for work study to be systematic. The full effect is felt in an organization when work study is applied everywhere, without relaxation and when everyone begins to be filled with the attitude or mind which is the basis of successful work study.
Intolerance of waste in any form, whether material, time effort or human – ability and the refusal to accept without question that things must be done in a certain way because ‘ that is the way they have always been done’.
METHOD STUDY
If you study the economic history of any advanced country, you will find that major factor which has brought this advancement is higher productivity of each and every factor of production. But one should clearly understand the meaning of higher production and productivity. Higher production means, production of more number of goods and services. But productivity means ratio of outputs in to inputs. When we say productivity is high, it means production is high with less input or with less use of resources.
When productivity is more, we use fewer resources. This means less per unit cost and hence we can have fewer prices of goods and services. When prices are less, there would be more demand for goods and services. When demand is more, we have to produce more to meet the demand. Naturally this results into increase in the national wealth. To increase productivity, the most important effective technique is method study.
Method study is defined as the systematic recording, analysis and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work and the development and application of easier and more effective methods.
As a matter of fact techniques of method study is not very difficult to understand but one has to follow the technique rather religiously and should have faith in the saying that there is always a better way for doing the things.
This study is a systematic approach to investigate the operations; hence proper steps are required to be followed. These steps are…
Select- Work to be studied.
Record- All the facts about the present method.
Examine- Critically all the facts in ordered sequence.
Develop- The most practical and effective method.
Install- New method as a standard practice.
Maintain- New method by regular checks.
SELECT
While selecting job or operation for study, one has to undertake preliminary study and has to consider economical, technical and human aspects involved in it. In the preliminary study, we must get at least some rough idea for possible reduction in either effort required to be put in or in material cost or where a lot of manual work is involved. A small saving occurred per piece manufactured in large quantities results into saving of thousands of dollars.
Similarly when costly material is being used for the production, there is a tremendous scope for saving. Therefore, proper selection of job for a study is a first important step in the method study.
RECORD
Next step is of recording all the relevant facts about the operation of components under study. This recording in detail is necessary for critical examination of the facts in the present method. For this purpose, various charts are developed with the help of which, one can get quick understanding of the whole situation as well as one can get clues for the improvement, like operation process charts, flow process charts, man-machine charts, flow diagrams, operator movement diagrams etc.
These charts are prepared by using some specific symbols having specific meanings.
CRITICAL EXAMINATION
The next and most important step in the method study is critical examination of existing ways of doing the work. This is done with the help of charts already prepared for this purpose and questioning technique, every aspect of the work is challenged.
We have already seen that in manufacturing, there are some ‘do’ operations and some storage operations. Generally ‘do’ operations are productive operations and storage or transport activities are non productive activities. While doing this, there is a well established pattern of series of questions. These are what – why – where – when – who – and – how. By these questions we have to challenge the purpose, sequence, place, means and person. Many times, we do not get satisfactory answers. Here, we can start thinking of better alternatives.
One should keep it in mind that in method study, nothing should be taken for granted. Even in case of very simple things, we should minutely examine the facts and try to find out better alternatives. Some simple things also results into great loss or waste of efforts material and money.
DEVELOP
Steps Involved:
Record the method proposed through the critical examination.
Consult all level of managements and workers for their suggestions and objectives.
Test thus modified proposed method for its advantages claimed over the original method.
Prepare and put up the report on proposed method to the management for its final approval and subsequent implementation.
Comparison of the existing and proposed (new) method is essential, in order to show that improvements are factual and it is important, therefore, that all activities are portrayed in the same scale and at the same level.
The synthesis of possible improvements will be viewed from the fact that the proposed method is practical, feasible, safe, effective and economical.
INSTALL
The proposed method is installed in two stages.
PREPARATION.
IMPLEMENTATION.
PLANNING.
Actual installations involve the introduction of developed method as standard practice.
Arranging.
Rehearing.
Preparation.
Implementation.
Planning.
Arranging.
Rehearing.
Actual installations involve the introduction of developed method as standard practice.
MAINTAIN
Once the new installations has been installed, it should be maintained in its specified form and workers should not be allowed to slop back in to the old method and introduce elements not allowed, unless there is a very good reason for doing so.
The proper functioning of the installed method is ensured by periodic checks and verification.
WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is the application of technique, designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specific job, at a defined level of performance. In simple words you can say that it is a method to this time required for performing any job.
In the present industry work measurement is the primary necessity. Work measurement is required right from the foundation of an industry. The uses of work measurement can be listed as under.
Manpower and machinery requirement.
Machine utilization and operation productivity.
Balancing of work centers.
Compare alternative method.
Calculate cost of existing product.
Calculate cost of new product.
Filling in the quotations or tenders.
Make delivery promises.
Decide rates of sub contracting.
Control on costs.
Incentive schemes.
TECHNIQUE OF WORK MEASUREMENT
Time study.
Activity sampling, rated activity sampling.
Synthesis from standard data.
Analytical estimation.
Predetermined motion time systems.
TIME STUDY
Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the time and rate of working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions and for analyzing the data, so as to obtain the time, necessary for carrying the job, at a defined level of performance.
For carrying out time study, some equipment is required.
Stop Watch
Study Board
Time Study Forms
STEPS FOR MAKING TIME STUDY
Select the job to be studied.Obtain and record all the information.
Break down the operation into elements.
Measure the record elemental time.
Assess the speed of the worker.
Calculate the basic time.
Determine the allowances.
Complete the standard time.
Select the job to be studied
There is always some reason for making the time study. It may be:
Introduction of new job.
New Method.
New Tools/Tooling.
Change in material.
Bottle-necking operation.
In the case of new jobs, we have to see that the jobs are properly set, the sequence of operation is properly decided and best available methods and tooling are used.
Obtain and Record all the information.
Name of the job.
Drawing Number of the job.
Material used for the job.
Quality requirements.
Jigs and fixtures and tools used.
The machine used and the speed and feed available on the machine.
Material removal for the job.
Details of operation.
Small sketch of the job.
BREAKDOWN THE OPERATIONS INTO ELEMENTS
Once all the information is recorded, the time study engineer has to observe the complete operation and break down the operation in to small elements.
An element is a distinct part of the specific job selected for convenience of observation, measurement and analysis.
The detailed breakdown in to elements is essential to isolate the effective time, to facilitate checking of method, to decide the fatigue and fatigue allowance, to rate the working speed of the operator accurately etc.
Measure the record elemental time.
Once the elements are noted down, timing can start. Timing methods are of two ways:
Cumulative Timing
Fly Back TimingIn cumulative timing method, the stop watch is continuously running. The watch reading after completion of every element is recorded. The difference between two successive readings gives the observed time of the element.
In fly back method, after completion of each element, the watch reading is recorded and the reading is brought to zero by pressing the fly back knob. This method gives the elemental time directly.
Number of cycles to be timed.
The time study is a sampling technique and hence the accuracy is depends upon the sample size i.e., number of cycles timed. Number of cycles to be observed depend upon:
The accuracy required.
Variation in time from one place to another.
Assess the speed of the worker.
While making the time study, as far as possible, a competent and steady worker should be put on the work. His pace of work should be average. He should be physically fit and should have acquired sufficient job knowledge and experience. An average qualified worker can be defined as one who is accepted as having necessary physical attributes, possesses the required intelligence and education and has acquired necessary skills and knowledge to carry out the work to satisfactory standards.
PERFORMANCE RATING
Whenever you observe any operation being done, its performance may be slower, faster or normal speed. The time study engineer has to judge the working pace of the operator, whether it is normal slow or fast. This is called as performance rating.
The performance rating is the assessment of a worker’s rate of working relative to the observer’s concept of rate corresponding to standard pace.
While rating the workman, time study engineers has to be very careful because this is the area where he can go wrong or he can be cheated by the worker, because everybody knows that the work measurement is ultimately related to the earnings/productivity of the operator. Hence, the time study engineer has to be very cautious in rating; sometimes he is over-careful. When the worker is having smooth and rhythmical movements, he should not rate that worker very low.
CALCULATE THE BASIC/NORMAL TIME
Now we know that the observed time, need not be the normal time. Hence, all the elemental observed times are required to be converted into the normal time. When the observed time is multiplied by the performance rating, the product is known as the basic/normal time.
Observed time X Performance rating = normal time.
Normal time may be defined as the time required for carrying out an element of work at standard rating.
If the observed time for an element is 0.5 minutes, performance rating is 80%, and then normal time is,
0.5 X 80/100 = 0.4 minute.
Work cycle contains manual elements as well as machine elements. With the help of performance rating, the manual elements are normalized. Similarly, we have to see that the machining elements are also normal.
Depending upon the job material, tool used, and material removed, surface finish and dimensional accuracy required, the cutting speed and feed are decided.
While conducting the time study, the time study engineer has to see that the standard cutting speed and feeds must be used. By different tool travel, the time for machine elements can be calculated. This is a counter check on the observed machine time.
Hence, the total normal time of a job or a work cycle is the summation of the basic for all the manual and machine elements.
Determine the Allowance.
The type of allowances added to ‘Normal –Time’ is as follows:
FATIGUE ALLOWANCE OR RELAXATION ALLOWANCE (Afj, Ajm)
This is in addition to the normal time intended to provide the workers with the opportunity to recover from physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specific work under specified conditions. The amount of allowance will depend on the nature of the job.
Constant Allowance
VariableThis allowance depends upon standing, abnormal position, use of muscular energy, bad light, atmospheric conditions, close attention, noise level, mental strain, monotony etc.
Personal Allowance (Ap)This provides for the necessity to go away from the work place to attend the personal needs such as washing, going to fresh room, getting a drink. The allowance is made as constant percentage of normal time, common figure being 5% for men.
Miscellaneous Allowance (Am)This allows for time required to perform other jobs related to the tasks he is performing such as getting tools from tool-crib, tool regrinding, consultation with supervisor etc. The percentage of allowance depends on the nature of the job.
COMPLETE THE STANDARD TIME
Standard time may be defined as the total time in which the job should be completed at standard performance.
Standard Time =
(Tn ) = ( 1 + Afh/100 X Th + ( 1 + Afm/100 ) X Tm
Tn = Standard Time
Ap = Personal Allowance
Afh = Fatigue Allowance for handling
Afm = Fatigue Allowance for machining
Tm = Normal Time for machining
JOB EVALUATION
It is defined as the complete operation of determining the value of an individual job in relation to the other jobs in the organization. It begins with the job analysis and is designed to determine the relative value of the jobs or groups of jobs. It also involves the pricing of these values by establishing minimum and maximum salaries for each group of jobs, based on their relative value. The operation ends with the final checking of the resulting salary system.
Job evaluation deals with jobs only and in no way is concerned with the persons doing these jobs.
Decides the relative values of different jobs in an organization.
Helps to formulate an appropriate and uniform wage structure. The aim is to provide equal pay for all jobs of equal value. The salary should be proportional to the job difficulty and responsibility associated with it.
Clarifies the responsibility and authority concerned with each job.
Provides a basis for recruitment, selection, training, promotion and transfer of the employees.
Improves employer – employee relationship.
Adds job satisfaction.
Minimize labor turnover.
Describe and evaluates new job.
Ranking MethodThe different jobs depending upon their requirements, responsibilities involved and their importance to the organization are ranked, graded or placed from top to bottom.
ADVANTAGES
Simple and fast, less expensive.
Easily mastered and administered.
Suitable for small organizations involving lesser number of jobs to be evaluated.
DISADVANTAGES
There is no commonly accepted base for deciding the rank. Method is not very correct and not useful for large organizations.
CLASSIFICATION OR GRADING METHOD
Jobs are classified or graded in groups or levels of equal skill, difficulty, responsibility, importance and other requirements. It may be a production job, a sales job or an office job. Each job family can be broken into a number of grades. Each grade carries an appropriate monetary value.
ADVANTAGES
Simple, easily mastered and administered.
It is more accurate as compared to ranking method
DISADVANTAGES
It is not useful for long organizations.
Method does not involve detailed job analysis.
Sometimes, it is difficult to correlate the classified grade of the job with the present salary of the worker.
FACTOR COMPARISON METHOD
The method employs a five factor scale for analyzing, comparing and evaluating different jobs. The five factors are skill, mental effort, physical effort, responsibility and working conditions.
PROCEDURE
Identify a few key jobs in the organization and record their wages. Key jobs are those representative jobs which are assumed to be correctly or fairly paid.
Analyses the key jobs for each of the positive factors mentioned above.
Allocate the salary (paid for each key job) among the five factors in proportion to their requirement, necessity or importance of the job.
This formulates a money rating scale for each of the five factors.
EXAMPLEFor fixing wages for a new job, this method uses a ready-made job comparison (Monetary) scale and thus the wages can be calculated speedily. This method finds the wages for a job from existing wage rates.
DISADVANTAGES
Selection of unfairly paid jobs as key jobs, can introduce considerable error in the wages calculated by this method.
It is difficult to decide each factor into a large number of sub factors and unless done so, accurate results may not be achieved.
Complicated, not easily understood and hence less popular as compared to point method.
The method depends upon subjective judgment; different persons may attach different monetary value with each factor for the same importance.
POINT METHOD
The point method basis itself on dividing the jobs into infinite number of factors which in turn are further sub divided into grades or degrees. Each degree is awarded certain points and when such points for all the degrees are totaled, they indicate the importance of the job in the organization, consequently a suitable wage rate proportional to the total points is determined. The steps involved in point method are given below:
Select a few jobs which can be taken as representative of the job to be evaluated in the organization. Key jobs are those which can be clearly defined and fairly paid.
Establish and define job factors. Following are the factors:
Skill, education and training, experience judgment and initiative.
Effort- physical, mental.
Responsibility towards materials, equipment, machinery, tools and fellow workers.
Working condition- exposure to hazards, dust, smoke, fumes and noise, high temperature, glare and harmful radiations, etc.
For the range of jobs to be evaluated, establish the importance of each factor and decide its weight age points.
Select and define grades for each factor.
Allocate points to each grade.
Break the key jobs into factors and the factors into grades. Total up all the grade points for each key job.
Establish the factors and grades for the job to be evaluated.
Since this method involves points that is numerical numbers, it is considered to be more correct and reliable.
CAUSED ESTIMATION
The basic method of cost estimation used by Industrial Engineering Division or Cost Accounts Department is the same, the only difference being that whereas the actual cost is based on actual data, estimated cost is based on assumed data. All the assumptions regarding the product specifications, material of construction and inspection standards are listed down on the estimation sheet and should there be any change in these assumptions, the cost structure would also change. It has been our experience so far that many changes take place from the estimation stage to the execution stage resulting in variation in cost.
SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DIVISION
Cost estimation of the following items is done by industrial engineering division.
Tailor-made products and spares (excluding BHR,BHF,NKS)
Newly developed products and spares(until the first lot)
Regular products with modifications in design, involving major estimation work.
Job work of outside parties excluding minor repair work.
As such, if request for cost estimation other than those mentioned above are sent to Industrial Engineering Division, by mistake the same are passed onto Cost Accounts Department.
PROCEDURE FOR GETTING ESTIMATIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DIVISION
The tender enquiries regarding products are referred by sales department to research and development division or product engineering division. They study the tender specifications, discuss with manufacturing and inspection divisions and furnish the designed details(such as name of the product, its drawing and overall dimensions, materials of construction, shaft diameter ,component thickness, and other related tools required to assemble etc) with comments on various clauses to industrial engineering division. Based on this data, the cost is estimated by industrial engineering division and informed to sales department. Even if, in some cases, the enquiry is directly sent to industrial engineering division, the same is forwarded to the concerned division (i.e. R and D/product engineering division), because unless the designed details are arrived, cost cannot be estimated.
Job work enquiries are referred by sales department to the concerned division. If the enquiry is regarding costing only, the cost is given by other concerned division. The division checks up the capacity and inform the process to be followed to industrial engineering division who estimates the cost and inform the sales department. Enquiries sent directly to IED for cost estimation are forwarded to the division because, unless the availability of capacity is ensured and process to be followed is finalized, cost cannot be estimated.
COST ESTIMATION METHOD
After receipt designed data (or process in case of job work), IED estimates the cost on the following lines:
MATERIAL COST
Weights of castings are estimated by comparing with the existing similar components. In case of castings, the weights are of rough castings after removing runners, risers, gates, etc. weights of purchased raw materials are calculated from charts, considering suitable machining allowance, available stock, sizes, etc. these weights are multiplied by the actual rates to arrive at the material cost.
MACHINING COST
It is a product of machining time and hourly rate. Machine- hour rate is the sum of labor cost, overhead cost and depreciation. Labor and overhead rates are informed by cost accounts. Depreciation computed by straight line method assuming current price of the machine and 32000 utilized hours as life. For machine- hour rate for job work, one more factor is introduced in addition to labor, overheads and depreciation. It’s interest on capital at current market rates.
For undeveloped standard product, timings will be high initially and will taper down gradually. For cost estimation purposes, the final achievable time is considered and not the initial time.
ASSEMBLING COST
It is the product of assembling time and hourly rate. Man hour rate is the sum of labor and overhead rates informed by cost accounts departments from time to time. Assembling time and cost are also worked out on the same considerations as machining time and cost.
PAINTING AND PACKING COST
It varies from 1% to 4% of the total direct product cost depending upon the product and whether it is completely packed crate packed or partly packed. Cost of export painting and packing will be higher and may go up to 10%.
SALES AND DISTRIBUTION COST
This is expressed as a percentage of manufacturing cost and is informed by cost accounts department from time to time at present it is 7%. For job work, it is taken at 5%.
This is also expressed percentage of manufacturing cost and is informed by cost accounts department from time to time. At present it is 9%. For job work it is taken at 5%.
DEVELOPMENT COST
All the costs mentioned above are included in the cost of the product. Development cost which consists chiefly of cost of pattern equipment and tooling is shown separately and is not included in the cost of the product. Development cost is given only once for one product. Afterwards, even if it is not given, same value may be taken. After a product has been developed, development cost is not given.
TOTAL COST
Following example will explain the calculation of total cost.
REASONS FOR VARIATION FOR COST
In spite of doing the cost estimation part meticulously there may be some variation in the original estimated cost and cost worked out after execution of the order. This variation can be due to one or more of the following reasons:
TERMS OF TENDER
Cost estimation is carried out as per the terms of the tender. R&D Division or Product Engineering Division go through the tender specifications and recommend the material of constructions, quality requirements etc. If the tender specifications are wrongly interpreted and costly materials are recommended, estimated cost will be high.
DESIGN DATA
Design data for cost estimation such as over all dimension of the products and components, diameter of shaft, driving units and specifications of each components and parts are given by R&D Division or PED. From estimation stage to executive stage, there are drastic changes in the design parameters. Sometimes, the product itself changes. It results in variation in cost.
ESTIMATION SYSTEM
The variation in cost due to estimation system may be because of the following reasons:
MATERIAL COSTCost
estimation is based upon general market rates ruling at the time of estimation. Demand and supply position, relationship with the vendor, bargaining power of the company in a particular situation and market rates ruling at the time of order execution will make considerable difference between estimated and actual cost. Similarly, casting rates are based on average rejection index. In a particular case, this rejection percentage may be higher or lower than average resulting in higher or lower casting rates respectively.
PROCESSING COST
Variation in processing cost may be due to change in machining and assembly techniques over a period of time. In a particular case, the material may be unduly hard and rejection and wastage may be excessive (or too less). For some products, the initial processing time may be more than the estimated time because it takes some time for the regular process to establish.
CONCLUSION
It is clear from the above that for a realistic cost estimate, three things are very essential:
Correct interpretation of tender specifications.
Realistic and sufficient design data, and,
Sufficient time for cost estimation.
Finally, the tender should be so routed that about three week’s clear time is available for cost estimation, some changes are suggested after receipt of data by Industrial Engineering Division. They need confirmation by R&D Division/PED before taking up for cost estimation. Moreover, the products being off tailor-made type, the weight and cost of each component is to be estimated and complied for every tender separately. Without sufficient time, it is difficult to critically examine the cost structure.
A NOTE ON THE PROJECT REPORT
This article is aimed at giving guidance to those who experience difficulty with report writing. It is not suggested that there is only one way to write a project report since people have their own individual’s preferences and style of writing but most reports would contain the following sections:
Title and Index.
To identify report.
Introduction.
To set the scene.
Analysis.
Essentially the ‘findings’.
Conclusions.
What we have reduced.
Recommendations.
What requires to be done.
Evaluation.
Qualifying the cost and benefits.
Implementations.
Installation procedures.
Appendices.
For the details,
In addition to above, a summary of the contents is essential for every report of reasonable length. Acknowledgment section should only be made where genuine assistance is given. Thus these two sections conclude the requirement of a project report.
Summary for the busy executive.
Acknowledgements Give credit where due.
The summary section favored by the author serves to provide the busy executive with the main points of the study.
The essential sections of a report described earlier are now discussed in more details followed by general comments.
TITLE & INDEXE
very project report must have relevant title (preferable short), together with the name of investigator/s, circulation list, date of investigation and/or report, and the name of the place where the study occurred. All this should be typed on a single front page followed by the table of report contents on a separate page.
It is necessary to inform the reader what the report sets out to do and this is accomplished in this section. Anew page should be commenced. The introduction should be brief to the point.
Reasons for the investigation.
A statement of objectives (purpose)
SUMMARY
Care is needed in compilation of the summary because it decides whether whole report will b read by higher authorities.
The summary must obviously be pertinent and short in length; a rough guide might suggest no more than 10% of the words contained in the main report excluding appendices.
Thus, the contents of the summary will indicate the main findings, conclusions, recommendations and method of implementations with the cost and benefits. In short, this section provides an overview of the detailed report.
ANALYSIS
A new page should be started commencing with a short description of present situation and historical back-ground if considered important. Note, that proper diagnosis and analysis of the problem requires adequate information, a point that cannot be over stressed. An analytical approach rather than simply describing an existing or proposed set of conditions is very essential. A common flaw in project work is that the person arrives at a solution long before he has completed his analysis. This must be avoided at all costs.
From an examination of the data, various findings will emerge. The selection of the reference period must be discussed and agreed with the appropriate departments i.e. accountancy and the section where the investigations takes place. Findings which will be particularly important and useful are those relating to cost and this, such costs as of labor, machine, material and capital must be treated with caution, work measurement data will be utilized but the appropriate technique must be used.
THE CONCLUSION
Persons frequently find difficulty in differentiating between findings, conclusions and recommendations. The author draws the distinction in the following manner.
FINDINGS
Findings are a statement of facts without drawing any deduction or stating any action to be followed, e.g. machine utilization is 20%.
CONCLUSION
This is the inference made from the findings e.g. the machine utilization of 20 percent is mainly due to the improper use of the machine by the operator. However, it does not include any statement of action to be taken.
RECOMMENDATION
The operator requires training in the use of the machine immediately i.e. it is a statement of action.
Thus, conclusions are an interpretation of the findings. Nevertheless, there will possibly arise different deductions of the facts, and this is a common feature of industrial disputes. But the report is essentially a vehicle for discussion irrespective of the conclusions reached.
Recommendations- This part is another main component of the report and stats the positive course of action suggested by the investigator.
Recommendations must be unambiguous and care should be taken to point out any implications likely to arise.
EVALUATION
A report is not complete without a proper quantitative assessment of gains and losses usually in monetary terms. However, in some instances, subjective gains such as improvements in staff morale may be extremely difficult to quantity and the technique of cost benefit analysis may be utilized. Any claims must be checked and verified and usually the net saving resulting from the recommendations will be stated.
IMPLEMENTATION
It is extremely helpful to management if the report gives an indication of how, the recommendations are to be implemented. This will include a time table of events plus personnel involved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The inclusion of this section should help to create good relationships but a personal view is that thanks should only be given where assistance has been contributed outside the normal work role. The acknowledgement should be contained in or two sentences avoiding any flowery language.
APPENDICES
This section completes the report and will commence on a new page for each appendix (numbered alphabetically or sequentially from 1). The purpose of this section is to avoid excessive details in the main body of the report and reference is made to the appendix. If a particularly piece of a data is vitally important to the argument, it may be included at the appropriate part in the body of the report or as a footnote. If the report contains technical jargon, a ‘Glossary of Terms’ should be included, and a bibliography containing the appropriate reference is essential.
GENERAL POINTS
The number of words required meeting the project requirements, the institute do not appear to stipulate any figure but 3,000 should be adequate. In addition to the page numbering, most reports carry an additional indexing system which falls, into 2 main types:
DECIMAL NOTATION
In which each main section given a consecutive number e.g.
Introduction.
Summary and each sub heading given the decimal notation.
Any further breakdown of sub sections would continue the process.
PARAGRAPH NUMBERING
Each succeeding paragraph is given a consecutive number.
Style of writing is unique to each author but it should be as simple as possible, eliminating jargon, consideration being given to good sentence construction, without flowery language is avoiding the first and the second person, since the author’s relationship to the report should be an impersonal one. The report should thus low in a logical sequence and the writer must attempt to strike the correct balance between sections.
Finally the cardinal rules of project reports are accuracy, brevity and clarity.
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